Modern industrial and commercial practice.

Scale of production

One-off / bespoke (job production)

Products are individually designed and manufactured to meet specific customer requirements.

Production is labour-intensive and relies heavily on skilled workers.

Costs are high due to:

individual consultation and bespoke design work

specialist skills and processes

lack of economies of scale

Example: One-off production is typically used for products such as custom furniture, specialist medical equipment, and luxury yachts or bespoke musical instruments, where each item is made to a unique specification.

Batch production

Products are manufactured in groups (batches) using the same equipment and processes.

Commonly uses:

jigs and fixtures to improve accuracy

CNC machines to ensure consistency

Once the initial set-up is complete, additional units can be produced efficiently.

Example: Batch production is commonly used for products such as wooden furniture, pottery, and electric guitars, where CNC routing allows multiple identical bodies to be produced accurately within each batch.

Mass / line production

Uses division of labour, where each worker or machine performs a single repeated task.

Production arranged in a linear sequence.

Highly mechanised systems enable:

very high output

low unit cost

consistent quality

Example: Mass production is used for products such as cars (e.g. Ford Fiesta), mobile phones, and flat-pack furniture such as Ikea Billy bookcases, where automated assembly lines allow large volumes to be produced efficiently.

Modern manufacturing systems (A-level)

Unit production systems (UPS)

Mainly used in textile manufacturing.

Garments are suspended on computer-controlled overhead carriers.

Reduces manual handling and improves workflow efficiency.

Example: Unit production systems are commonly used in clothing manufacture, where garments move automatically between sewing, finishing and inspection workstations.

Uses:

CAD for rapid design changes

rapid prototyping (including 3D printing)

flexible manufacturing systems

Best suited to low-volume, customised products.

Example: Quick response manufacturing is often used for products such as specialist packaging machinery, where a machine must be designed and manufactured quickly to suit a specific food product.

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)

Designed to allow fast switching between products as demand changes.

Modular / cell production:

CNC machines grouped into manufacturing cells.

Robots load and unload machines.

AGVs transport materials between cells.

Entire system is computer-controlled.

Example: Modular or cell production is commonly used for automotive engine components, where CNC machines, robots and AGVs operate together in a flexible manufacturing cell.

SMED (Single Minute Exchange of Dies)

Reduces die or mould changeover time to under 10 minutes.

Uses quick-release fixings and interchangeable tooling.

Minimises machine downtime.

Example: SMED is often applied in injection moulding, where moulds can be changed rapidly to allow different plastic components to be produced on the same machine.

Advantages:

improved quality control

better protection of intellectual property

reduced risk of supplier failure

Disadvantages:

increased administration

reduced flexibility

possible loss of specialist expertise

Example: Vertical integration is commonly seen in manufacturers that produce their own components rather than outsourcing, allowing greater control over quality and supply.

Designers reduce cost and waste by:

nesting parts using CAD/CAM to minimise off-cuts

designing around standard material sizes

using hollow sections and thin walls where appropriate

selecting efficient structural forms

Example: Efficient material use can be seen in laser-cut sheet metal, where components are nested to reduce waste, in I-beams and cellular beams used in construction, and in thinner glass bottles, which reduce raw material use while maintaining performance.

Accuracy, tolerances and waste reduction

Accuracy is essential for correct fit, ease of assembly, and effective sealing and function.

Automated machinery is used for very high volumes of identical components.

CNC machines are used where flexibility is required and multiple components with tight tolerances are needed.

Example: High accuracy is required in products such as engine components, flat-pack furniture fixing holes, and screw-top bottle threads, where poor tolerances would result in failure or poor performance.

Comparing bulk and one-off production

One-off production is: skilled, labour-intensive, and expensive.

Bulk production: enables automation, reduces unit cost, and benefits from bulk purchasing.

CAD/CAM enables mass customisation, combining efficiency with individual specification.

Example: This comparison can be seen between bespoke hardwood furniture and mass-produced flat-pack furniture, and in customised cars ordered online, which combine automated production with individual specification.

JiT strategies:

close supplier relationships

continuous improvement (Kaizen)

waste reduction (Muda)

Kanban stock control systems

Example: JiT manufacture was successfully adopted by Harley-Davidson, where motorcycles were produced only after customer orders were received.

Use of computer systems in manufacture

Planning and control software schedules production.

Barcodes and RFID track stock and components.

EPOS systems record sales and trigger re-ordering.

CIM integrates design, manufacture, distribution and storage.

Example: These systems are used in automated warehouses with AGVs and in retail environments where EPOS systems trigger automatic restocking.

Standardised and bought-in components

Standardised components

Manufactured to common, interchangeable standards.

Ensure compatibility and ease of replacement.

Example: Standardised components include ISO-standard screws and bolts and light bulbs and fittings, which can be easily replaced or interchanged.

lower unit cost

access to specialist expertise

consistent quality

availability of supplier CAD models

Example: Bought-in components commonly include electric motors, batteries, and audio connectors, which are integrated into products without being manufactured in-house.

Sub-assemblies

Pre-manufactured units incorporated into final products.

Enable concurrent manufacture, speeding up production.

Reduce final assembly complexity.

Example: Typical sub-assemblies include bicycle braking systems, gear mechanisms, and drawer runners in furniture, which can be manufactured separately and fitted during final assembly.