Design theory.
Designing and making principles
Design influences
Notes for this subtopic are being added.
Open this subtopic ↗Styles and movements
AQA section 3.2.2 covers the principles of Arts and Crafts, Art Deco, Modernism (including Bauhaus) and Postmodernism (including Memphis). The summaries below are from your supplied notes.
Read section 3.2.2 of the AQA specification ↗
Arts & Crafts
Context
Arts & Crafts developed during the Industrial Revolution as a reaction against factory mass production. Designers such as William Morris believed industrial production often resulted in products that lacked quality and individuality.
Philosophy
The movement valued skilled craftsmanship, traditional manufacturing, quality materials and well-made everyday products.
Style
Arts & Crafts designs commonly used natural and organic forms, plants and wildlife, repeating patterns, rich decoration and a handcrafted appearance.
Key designer
William Morris.
Specific examples
Strawberry Thief, 1883 and Willow Bough, 1887.
Art Deco
Context
Art Deco developed strongly after WWI. New technologies, processes and materials had developed, travel increased, and society experienced economic and social change. The movement reflected optimism about modern life, technological progress, comfort and luxury.
Philosophy
Art Deco celebrated modernity, technological progress, luxury, glamour, wealth and status.
Style
Art Deco used bold geometric shapes, symmetry, ornamentation, streamlined forms, clean forms and modern materials. Chrome, glass, polished woods and luxurious materials were commonly associated with the style.
Influences
Cars, aircraft, skyscrapers and other symbols of technological progress encouraged streamlined and futuristic forms. Consumer culture also increased demand for products that communicated wealth and success.
Common imagery
Art Deco used motifs such as the rising sun, shells, half moons, American skylines, Egyptian themes and mother-of-pearl imagery.
Key designer
Eileen Gray.
Specific example
Bibendum Chair, 1926.
Modernism / Bauhaus
Context
Modernism developed alongside industrialisation, technological development and major social change. Following WWI, designers increasingly wanted to create products and buildings suited to a modern industrial society rather than reproduce historical decorative styles.
Philosophy
Modernist design prioritised function, simplicity and modern production. Bauhaus aimed to connect art, craft, technology and industry. Unnecessary decoration was removed and materials were used in ways appropriate to their properties and manufacturing processes.
Style
Modernist and Bauhaus products used simple geometric forms, clean lines, minimal decoration, visible structures and modern industrial materials.
Materials
Tubular steel, glass, metal, concrete and other industrial materials became important.
Key designers
Walter Gropius, Marianne Brandt and Marcel Breuer.
Specific examples
Gropius’s Bauhaus Dessau, Brandt’s MT49 and Breuer’s Wassily Chair.
Postmodernism / Memphis
Context
Postmodernism developed as a reaction against conventional design and strict Modernist functionalism. Your course describes it as embracing complexity, contradiction and diversity and producing designs intended to provoke reactions.
Philosophy
Postmodern designers rejected the idea that function must completely determine form. Design could communicate emotion, humour, symbolism, personality and historical references.
Style
Postmodernism used humour and personality, retro references, deconstruction, unusual forms, bright colours, decoration, symbolism and asymmetry.
Memphis
Memphis was a particularly expressive form of Postmodern design associated with Ettore Sottsass. It used bright and clashing colours, geometric shapes, patterns, asymmetry, unusual proportions and plastic laminates.
Key designers
Ettore Sottsass and Philippe Starck.
Specific examples
Sottsass’s Carlton, 1981 and Starck’s Juicy Salif, 1990.
Designers and their work
What you need to know
For AQA Product Design (7552), you should be able to discuss the work of influential designers and explain how it reflects the principles of different design movements. AQA specifically names Philippe Starck, James Dyson, Margaret Calvert, Dieter Rams, Charles and Ray Eames, and Marianne Brandt. The other designers in these notes give useful context for the movements and the work covered in class.
As you revise each designer, connect their context, philosophy, style and influences to the named products. Be ready to explain how a specific choice of form, material or manufacturing method expresses an idea or meets a user’s needs; use examples rather than memorising a list of names. AQA also expects you to discuss the styles and principles of Arts and Crafts, Art Deco, Modernism/Bauhaus, and Postmodernism/Memphis.
Read section 3.2.2 of the AQA specification ↗
Designers in order of their work
Ordered by the earliest example of each designer’s work covered in these notes. Dates mark the work or project, rather than when the designer was born.
- William Morris — 1883 · Strawberry Thief
- Walter Gropius — 1911 · Fagus Factory
- Marianne Brandt — 1924 · MT49 Tea Infuser
- Marcel Breuer — 1925 · Wassily Chair
- Eileen Gray — 1926 · Bibendum Chair
- Charles and Ray Eames — 1950 · DSR Chair
- Dieter Rams — Braun — 1956 · Braun SK4
- Margaret Calvert — 1957–67 · British road signs
- Ettore Sottsass — 1969 · Valentine Typewriter
- Philippe Starck — 1990 · Juicy Salif
- James Dyson — 1993 · DC01
William Morris — Arts & Crafts
Background and context
William Morris was a major British designer associated with the Arts and Crafts movement in the late 19th century. The movement developed partly as a reaction against the Industrial Revolution, as factory production and machinery were replacing traditional craftsmanship. Morris believed that many mass-produced products lacked quality and individuality, so he promoted a return to skilled craftsmanship and traditional methods.
Philosophy
Morris believed that everyday products should be useful, beautiful and well made. He valued skilled craftsmanship, quality materials and the involvement of the maker rather than cheap factory production.
Style
Morris’s designs used natural and organic forms, including flowers, leaves, birds and other wildlife. His work commonly featured intricate repeating patterns, rich decoration and a handcrafted appearance.
Influences
Morris was strongly influenced by nature, medieval art and architecture, traditional craftsmanship and medieval methods of production. Industrialisation also influenced him because his work was partly a reaction against its effects.
Why iconic
Morris became one of the leading figures of the Arts and Crafts movement. His work helped revive interest in craftsmanship, quality materials and traditional production and influenced later attitudes towards craft and responsible design.
Specific work — Strawberry Thief, 1883
Strawberry Thief is a textile pattern featuring birds, strawberries, flowers and foliage arranged into a detailed repeating design. Its natural imagery and intricate pattern demonstrate Morris’s interest in nature and skilled decorative craftsmanship.
Specific work — Willow Bough, 1887
Willow Bough is a wallpaper and textile design based on intertwined willow branches and leaves. Its flowing organic forms and repeating natural pattern clearly demonstrate Morris’s nature-inspired Arts and Crafts style.
Walter Gropius — Bauhaus
Background and context
Walter Gropius was a German architect and the founder of the Bauhaus in 1919. Bauhaus developed after WWI during a period of major social, economic and technological change, when designers were searching for a new approach appropriate for modern industrial society.
Philosophy
Gropius wanted to unite art, craft, technology and industry. He believed that design should respond to function and modern manufacturing rather than simply copying decorative historical styles.
Style
Gropius’s work used simple geometric forms, clean lines, minimal decoration and modern industrial materials such as glass, steel and concrete.
Influences
He was influenced by industrialisation, modern manufacturing, new materials, architecture, engineering and the social changes that followed WWI.
Why iconic
Gropius founded the Bauhaus and helped establish a completely new approach to design education. Bauhaus principles went on to influence architecture, furniture, graphics and industrial design.
Specific work — Bauhaus Dessau, 1925–26
The Bauhaus building at Dessau uses large areas of glass, steel and concrete with strong geometric forms and very little ornamentation. Different parts of the building were designed according to their functions, demonstrating the Bauhaus combination of function, technology and modern materials.
Specific work — Fagus Factory, 1911–13
Gropius designed the Fagus Factory with Adolf Meyer. The building uses extensive glass and a clean geometric structure with reduced traditional decoration. It was an important early example of the ideas that later developed into Modernist architecture.
Marianne Brandt — Bauhaus
Background and context
Marianne Brandt was born in 1893 and studied painting and sculpture before studying and teaching at the Bauhaus. She became head of the Bauhaus metal workshop in 1928 and developed her career in an area that had previously accepted only men.
Philosophy
Brandt believed that function and simple geometry should guide design. She removed unnecessary decoration and used modern materials to create practical everyday products suited to industrial manufacture.
Style
Brandt’s work used simple geometric forms such as circles, spheres, cylinders and straight lines. She commonly used polished and reflective metal surfaces with minimal decoration and an industrial appearance.
Influences
Brandt was influenced by Bauhaus, Modernism, geometry, machinery, metalworking and industrial manufacturing.
Why iconic
Brandt was an important female Bauhaus designer who successfully applied Bauhaus principles to everyday household products. She demonstrated that functional industrial products could also have strong aesthetic qualities.
Specific work — MT49 Tea Infuser, 1924
The MT49 is a metal tea infuser constructed from basic geometric forms, including a hemispherical body and circular and cylindrical components. The design reduces a traditional household product to essential functional geometry with almost no unnecessary decoration.
Specific work — Kandem Lamp
Brandt’s Kandem lighting designs used metal and glass with simple geometric forms and little ornamentation. Their practical and adjustable construction reflects the Bauhaus aim of creating functional products suitable for industrial production.
Marcel Breuer — Bauhaus / Modernism
Background and context
Marcel Breuer worked within the Bauhaus during a period when new industrial materials and manufacturing methods were changing furniture design. Tubular metal structures demonstrated that products could be made strong and lightweight while using less material.
Philosophy
Breuer believed furniture should be functional, lightweight and simple. He reduced products to their essential structural components and used modern industrial materials instead of relying on traditional decorative furniture construction.
Style
Breuer’s furniture is geometric, linear and minimalist, with exposed structures and little unnecessary decoration. Tubular steel became one of the most recognisable features of his work.
Influences
Breuer was influenced by Bauhaus, industrial manufacturing and modern engineering. Your course material specifically links his thinking to lightweight tubular structures used in aircraft such as the Fokker F.VII.
Why iconic
Breuer helped revolutionise furniture through his use of tubular steel. His work demonstrated how modern industrial materials could replace traditional heavy furniture construction.
Specific work — Wassily Chair / Model B3, 1925
The Wassily Chair uses bent tubular steel with stretched leather or fabric panels. Its open geometric structure is strong but visually lightweight, and the stretched panels replace bulky traditional upholstery. The design exposes its construction and demonstrates the Bauhaus combination of technology, aesthetics and function.
Specific work — Cesca Chair / B32, 1928
The Cesca Chair combines tubular steel with cane and timber elements. Its cantilever structure removes the need for conventional rear legs. The chair demonstrates how the strength and flexibility of tubular steel allowed designers to create completely new furniture structures.
Eileen Gray — Art Deco / Modernism
Background and context
Eileen Gray worked mainly during the 1920s and 1930s, when designers were experimenting with new lifestyles, technologies, materials and manufacturing methods. Art Deco developed strongly after WWI during a period that celebrated technological progress, travel, economic growth and greater comfort.
Philosophy
Gray believed that furniture should respond to how people actually live. Her designs therefore considered function, adaptability, comfort and ergonomics rather than concentrating only on appearance.
Style
Gray’s work combined luxurious Art Deco curves with increasingly Modernist simplicity. She used geometric forms and modern industrial materials such as chromed tubular steel and glass alongside soft upholstery.
Influences
Gray was influenced by Art Deco, Modernism, Japanese lacquer techniques, modern industrial materials and the need to design around the user.
Why iconic
Gray helped bridge Art Deco and Modernism by combining luxury and visual expression with functional, adaptable furniture. Her focus on user needs anticipated later user-centred and ergonomic design.
Specific work — Bibendum Chair, 1926
The Bibendum Chair uses a chromed tubular-steel frame supporting large padded upholstered sections. Its rounded cushions were inspired by Bibendum, the Michelin Man. The soft curved cushions provide comfort while the simple metal structure uses a modern industrial material, combining Art Deco luxury with Modernist influence.
Specific work — E-1027 Adjustable Table, 1927
The E-1027 Adjustable Table uses chrome-plated tubular steel and a circular glass top. Its height can be adjusted to suit the user, making it a strong example of functional and user-centred design. Its simple geometry and industrial materials demonstrate Gray’s move towards Modernism.
Charles and Ray Eames
Background and context
Charles Eames lived from 1907–1978 and Ray Eames from 1912–1988. Their careers were influenced by major technological developments of the 20th century. WWII accelerated the development of machinery, materials and manufacturing processes, and these technologies later became available for civilian products.
Philosophy
Charles and Ray Eames believed design should be affordable for the masses, functional, comfortable, ergonomic, beautiful and organic.
Style
Their work used organic curves and ergonomic forms with little unnecessary decoration. They experimented with modern materials and processes such as moulded plywood, moulded shell construction, plastics/fibreglass and metals.
Influences
They were influenced by the human body and ergonomics, Modernism, experimentation with materials, industrial manufacturing and wartime technological developments.
Why iconic
The Eameses helped pioneer the use of moulded materials in furniture and combined industrial production with comfort and attractive organic forms. Their work became highly influential in modern furniture design.
Specific work — Eames Lounge Chair & Ottoman
The Eames Lounge Chair and Ottoman uses moulded plywood shells with leather upholstery and metal components. Its curved shells support the human body and create an ergonomic and comfortable form. It demonstrates how modern manufacturing technology could be combined with comfort and visual quality. Your practice slides specifically connect its materials and construction with technological development and its shape with the Eameses’ ergonomic philosophy.
Specific work — DSR Chair
The DSR Chair combines a moulded shell seat with a lightweight metal rod base. Moulding allows the seat to have complex ergonomic curves while still being repeatedly produced using industrial methods. It demonstrates the Eames philosophy of combining function, comfort, modern technology and wider production.
Dieter Rams — Braun
Background and context
Dieter Rams became closely associated with Braun during the growth of post-war consumer electronics. Electrical products were becoming increasingly common and technologically complex, creating a need for products that remained visually clear and easy to operate.
Philosophy
Rams’s central philosophy was “Less, but better.” He believed products should be useful, understandable, honest, unobtrusive and long-lasting. Unnecessary features and decoration should be removed.
Style
Rams used simple geometric forms, restrained colours, clean surfaces, grid-based layouts, clear typography and logically organised controls. His products were precise, minimal and unobtrusive.
Influences
Rams was influenced by Modernism, Functionalism, Bauhaus-related ideas, modern technology, user needs and design psychology.
Why iconic
Rams developed a highly consistent approach to modern industrial design and created his Ten Principles of Good Design. His minimalist and functional approach became highly influential in later product design.
Specific work — Braun SK4, 1956
The SK4 is a radio and record player with a simple geometric casing, transparent acrylic lid and clearly arranged controls. Unlike older electronics that often resembled traditional wooden furniture, the SK4 openly presents itself as modern technology. It demonstrates Rams’s ideas of honesty, simplicity and understandable design.
Specific work — Braun T3 Pocket Radio, 1958
The T3 has a simple rectangular body, regular speaker grid, large circular tuning control and very few unnecessary elements. Its clear visual hierarchy makes its operation easy to understand and demonstrates Rams’s principle of “less, but better.”
Margaret Calvert — Graphic / Information Design
Background and context
Margaret Calvert worked with Jock Kinneir on Britain’s road-sign system. As Britain’s road and motorway network expanded and car ownership increased, drivers were travelling faster and needed information that could be understood rapidly and consistently.
Philosophy
Calvert prioritised communication, clarity and safety over decoration. Signs had to be understandable from a distance and while the user was travelling at speed.
Style
Her work is clear, uncluttered and highly legible. It uses simple pictograms, high contrast, standardised layouts, recognisable silhouettes and clear typography. Your slides specifically describe Kinneir and Calvert’s signs as clear, uncluttered and easy to read while travelling towards them at speed.
Influences
Her work was influenced by road safety, human perception, viewing distance, vehicle speed, legibility and the need for standardisation.
Why iconic
Calvert helped create a consistent visual language for Britain’s road network. Her work is an important example of user-centred information design because graphic design is used directly to improve communication and safety.
Specific work — British Road-Sign System
The system uses standardised symbols, shapes, typography, colours and layouts. Unnecessary information is removed so motorists can understand messages rapidly. Consistency also allows drivers to learn the visual language and recognise information more quickly.
Specific work — Children Crossing Sign
The sign uses simplified human figures with minimal unnecessary detail. The clear silhouettes allow motorists to recognise the warning rapidly and from a distance without relying on lengthy written information.
Ettore Sottsass — Memphis / Postmodernism
Background and context
Sottsass became a major figure in Postmodern and Memphis design. Postmodernism challenged conventional and Modernist ideas about how products should look. Your slides identify humour and personality, retro influences and deconstruction as important characteristics of Postmodern design.
Philosophy
Sottsass rejected the idea that practical function should completely determine a product’s appearance. He believed products could communicate emotion, personality, humour and cultural meaning and that decoration could have value.
Style
Sottsass used bright and clashing colours, bold geometric shapes, asymmetry, decorative patterns, unusual proportions and plastic laminates. His work was deliberately expressive rather than restrained.
Influences
Sottsass was influenced by reaction against Modernism, popular culture, historical design, Art Deco and the use of colour and pattern.
Why iconic
Sottsass became a central figure in Memphis and helped challenge decades of Modernist functionalism. His work helped bring colour, pattern, humour and symbolism back into furniture and product design.
Specific work — Carlton Room Divider, 1981
Carlton is a room divider/bookshelf made using engineered board with decorative laminate surfaces. It uses bright colours, geometric shapes, diagonal elements and an asymmetrical structure. Although it provides storage, it also resembles an abstract sculpture, making visual expression as important as practical function.
Specific work — Valentine Typewriter, 1969
The Valentine Typewriter, designed with Perry King, is a bright-red portable typewriter with a bold and playful appearance. It transforms ordinary office equipment into an expressive consumer product and demonstrates Sottsass’s interest in colour, emotion and personality.
Philippe Starck — Contemprary
Background and context
Philippe Starck is a French designer born in 1949. His work developed during the growth of contemporary and mass consumer culture, when designers increasingly challenged strict Modernist ideas and celebrated personality and individualism. His father was an aeronautic designer, which also influenced him.
Philosophy
Starck’s philosophy includes the idea that “form follows emotion.” He believed mass-produced products could still feel personalised, products should be affordable, and design should be honest and have integrity. His work gives importance to personality, humour and emotional response as well as practical function.
Style
Starck’s work uses bright colours, quirky shapes, unusual materials and material combinations, stainless steel and acrylic. His forms can be curvaceous, smooth, aerodynamic, horn-like, flame-like, teardrop-shaped or deliberately unusual.
Influences
Starck was influenced by, aeronautical design through his father, mass consumer culture and a desire to rebel against strict Modernist doctrine.
Why iconic
Starck challenged the idea that product design should be concerned only with practical function. He blurred the boundaries between product design, sculpture and art and made ordinary objects memorable through humour and emotion.
Specific work — Juicy Salif, 1990
Juicy Salif is an aluminium lemon squeezer with three long legs and a sculptural alien-like form. Its appearance is very different from a conventional kitchen utensil and its practical effectiveness can be questioned. Starck provocatively described it as an object intended not simply to squeeze lemons but to start conversations, demonstrating his idea that emotional and symbolic value can matter alongside practical function.
Specific work — Ghost Chair, 2002
The Ghost Chair uses transparent plastic/polycarbonate to reinterpret a traditional historical chair form. It combines an old visual reference with a modern material and industrial production, demonstrating the Postmodern tendency to mix historical references with contemporary technology.
James Dyson
Background and context
Dyson developed products at a time when consumers increasingly expected domestic products to be convenient, efficient, technologically advanced and visually attractive. Technology was becoming an increasingly important part of everyday life, while advanced engineering and distinctive styling allowed products to be positioned as premium rather than basic appliances.
Philosophy
Dyson’s philosophy is described in your material as “fixing problems that others ignore.” His approach is strongly based on iterative engineering, where a problem is identified, prototypes are developed and tested, failures are analysed and the product is repeatedly improved.
Style
Dyson products often use futuristic forms, modern polymers, transparent components, distinctive colours and visible engineering. Rather than hiding the technology, the appearance often communicates how technologically advanced the product is.
Influences
Dyson is influenced by engineering, industrial machinery, technological experimentation, prototyping and problems found in existing products.
Why iconic
Dyson developed a distinctive brand identity by connecting engineering innovation with recognisable visual styling. Rather than simply changing the appearance of existing products, Dyson often attempts to redesign the technology used to perform the function.
Specific work — DC01 Vacuum Cleaner
The DC01 uses patented cyclone technology rather than relying on a conventional vacuum bag. It uses a transparent polycarbonate dust container and injection-moulded ABS components, with visible technology and a distinctive grey/yellow machine-like appearance. The transparent container allows users to see the collected dirt and technology working, while also creating a recognisable technological identity.
Specific work — Air Multiplier
The Air Multiplier has a distinctive circular form without conventional visible fan blades. Its unusual appearance immediately communicates technological innovation and makes it recognisable as a Dyson product.
Braun — company profile
Background and context
Braun is a German consumer-products company founded by engineer Max Braun in Frankfurt in 1921. It initially manufactured electrical components and radio parts before producing complete electrical products. Braun’s W333 radio was mass-produced during the 1930s, and the company later entered electric shaving with the S50.
Philosophy
Braun’s design approach emphasised simple, functional and understandable products. Products should perform their purpose clearly without unnecessary styling and should remain visually coherent and durable.
Style
Braun products are associated with minimal geometric forms, clean surfaces, restrained colours, precise construction and clearly organised controls.
Influences
Braun’s later design identity was strongly connected with Modernism, Functionalism and designers such as Dieter Rams.
Why iconic
Braun helped establish a consistent minimalist design language for modern consumer electronics and appliances.
Specific work — Braun SK4, 1956
The SK4 uses a simple geometric casing and transparent lid with clearly organised controls. Its minimal appearance helped move consumer electronics away from traditional decorative furniture styling.
Specific work — Braun T3 Pocket Radio, 1958
The T3 uses a compact rectangular body, circular tuning control and regular speaker grid. Its simple visual organisation makes the product immediately understandable and represents Braun’s restrained functional identity.
Dieter Rams’ Ten Principles of Good Design
Good design is innovative. Good design should make meaningful use of new technologies and developments rather than adding innovation without purpose.
Good design makes a product useful. A product should successfully fulfil its intended practical function.
Good design is aesthetic. Products used regularly should have visual quality as well as practical usefulness.
Good design makes a product understandable. The form, layout and controls of a product should communicate how it works.
Good design is unobtrusive. Products are tools and should not unnecessarily dominate their environment or user.
Good design is honest. A product should not appear more innovative, valuable or capable than it actually is.
Good design is long-lasting. Products should avoid short-lived fashionable styling so that they do not quickly become visually outdated.
Good design is thorough down to the last detail. Every component, proportion, control and detail should be carefully considered rather than arbitrary.
Good design is environmentally friendly. Design should conserve resources and minimise environmental damage throughout the product’s life.
Good design is as little design as possible. Designers should concentrate on essential features and remove unnecessary elements.